Nobel Prize for Physics

Physics is one of the five prize areas mentioned in Alfred Nobel’s will. The will was, however, partly incomplete. Nobel simply stated that prizes be given to those who, during the preceding year, “shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind” and that one part be given to the person who “shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics.”

Nobel Prize Physics Laureates

1901 : W. C. Röntgen ( Germany, 1845 – 03 – 27 – 1923 – 02 – 10 ) Discovery of X rays.

1902 : Hendrik A. Lorentz ( Netherlands, 1853 – 07 – 18 – 1929 – 02 – 04 ) Pieter Zeeman ( Netherlands, 1865 – 05 – 25 – 1943 – 10 – 09 ).

1903 : Henri A. Becquerel ( France, 1852 – 12 – 15 – 1908 – 08 – 25 ) Marie Curie ( France, Poland, 1867 – 11 – 07 – 1934 – 07 – 04 ) Pierre Curie ( France, 1859 – 05 – 15 – 1906 – 04 – 19 ) Discovery of radioactivity.

1904 : Lord Rayleigh ( United Kingdom ).

1905 : Philipp E. Lenard ( Germany, 1862 – 06 – 07 – 1947 – 05 – 20 ).

1906 : Joseph J. Thomson ( United Kingdom, 1856 – 12 – 18 – 1940 – 04 – 30 ) Conduction of electricity in gases.

1907 : Albert A. Michelson ( USA, 1852 – 12 – 19 – 1931 – 05 – 09 ) Measurement of the speed of light.

1908 : G. Lippmann ( France ).

1909 : Karl Ferdinand Braun ( Germany, 1850 – 06 – 06 – 1918 – 04 – 20 ) Guglielmo Marconi ( Italy, 1874 – 04 – 25 – 1937 – 07 – 20 ) wireless telegraphy.
1910 : Johann D. van der Waals ( Netherlands, 1837 – 11 – 23 – 1923 – 03 – 07 ) Molecular forces.
1911 : Wilhelm Wien ( Germany, 1864 – 01 – 13 – 1928 – 08 – 30 ) Heat radiation.
1912 : G. Dalén ( Sweden ).
1913 : H. Kamerlingh Onnes ( Netherlands ).
1914 : Max von Laue ( Germany, 1879 – 10 – 09 – 1960 – 04 – 24 ) Diffraction and interference of X rays by the arrangement of atoms in crystals ( Laue diagrams ).
1915 : Sir William Henry Bragg ( United Kingdom, 1862 – 07 – 02 – 1942 – 03 – 12 ) William Lawrence Bragg ( United Kingdom, 1890 – 03 – 31 – 1971 – 07 – 01 ) Investigation of crystal structures by X ray spectroscopy.
1917 : Ch. G. Barkia ( United Kingdom ).
1918 : Max Planck ( Germany, 1858 – 04 – 23 – 1947 – 10 – 04 ) Studies on thermodynamics and radiation.
1919 : Johannes Stark ( Germany, 1874 – 04 – 25 – 1957 – 06 – 21 ) Splitting of spectral lines in electrical fields ( Stark effect ).
1920 : Ch. E. Guillaume ( Switzerland ).
1921 : Albert Einstein ( Germany, 1879 – 03 – 14 – 1955 – 04 – 18 ) Theory of the photoelectric effect ( light quantum hypothesis ).
1922 : Niels Bohr ( Denmark, 1885 – 10 – 07 – 1962 – 11 – 18 ) Quantum theoretical atomic model.
1923 : Robert A. Millikan ( USA, 1868 – 03 – 22 – 1953 – 12 – 19 ) Measurement of the electron charge.
1924 : Karl M. G. Siegbahn ( Sweden, 1886 – 1978 ).
1925 : James Franck ( Germany, 1882 – 08 – 20 – 1964 – 05 – 21 ) Gustav Hertz ( Germany, 1887 – 07 – 21 – 1975 – 10 – 30 ) Studies on atomic and quantum theory ( excitation and ionization spectra of dilute gases ).
1926 : Jean B. Perrin ( France, 1870 – 09 – 30 – 1942 – 04 – 17 ) Studies on the discontinuous structure of matter.
1927 : Arthur H. Compton ( USA ) Ch. Th. R. Wilson ( United Kingdom ).
1928 : O. W. Richardson ( United Kingdom ).
1929 : Prince Louis Victor de Broglie ( France, 1892 – 08 – 15 – 1987 – 03 – 19 ) Studies on wave mechanics.
1930 : Sir Ch. V. Raman ( India, 1888 – 11 – 07 – 1970 – 11 – 21 ) Raman effect on light scattering by molecules.
1932 : Werner Heisenberg ( Germany, 1901 – 12 – 05 – 1976 – 02 – 01 ) Quantum theory.
1933 : Paul A. M. Dirac ( United Kingdom, 1902 – 08 – 08 – 1984 – 10 – 21 ) Erwin Schrödinger ( Austria, 1887 – 08 – 12 – 1961 – 01 – 04 ) Quantum theory, wave mechanics.
1935 : James Chadwick ( United Kingdom, 1891 – 10 – 20 – 1974 – 07 – 24 ) Discovery of the neutron.
1936 : C. D. Anderson ( USA ) V. F. Heß ( Austria ).
1937 : C. J. Davisson ( USA ) G. P. Thomson ( United Kingdom ).
1938 : Enrico Fermi ( Italy, 1901 – 09 – 29 – 1954 – 11 – 28 ) Discovery of nuclear transformations by irradiation with neutrons.
1939 : Ernest O. Lawrence ( USA, 1901 – 08 – 08 – 1958 – 08 – 27 ) Invention of the cyclotron.
1943 : Otto Stern ( USA, 1888 – 02 – 17 – 1969 – 08 – 18 ) Molecular rays, magnetic properties of the proton.
1944 : Isidor I. Rabi ( USA, 1898 – 07 – 29 – 1988 – 01 – 11 ) Studies on the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.
1945 : Wolfgang Pauli ( Austria, 1900 – 04 – 25 – 1958 – 12 – 15 ) quantum physical Pauli principle.
1946 : Percy W. Bridgman ( USA ).
1947 : Sir Edward Victor Appleton ( United Kingdom, 1892 – 1965 ) for his discovery of the so – called Appleton layer of the ionosphere, which is a dependable reflector of radio waves and as such useful in communication.
1948 : Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett ( United Kingdom, 1897 – 1974 ) for his discoveries in the field of cosmic radiation.

1949 : Hideki Yukawa( Japan, 1907 – 07 – 23 – 1981 – 09 – 09 ) Prediction of the existence of mesons.
1950 : C. F. Powell ( United Kingdom ).
1951 : Sir J. D. Cockcroft ( United Kingdom ) E. Th. S. Walton ( Ireland ).
1952 : Felix Bloch ( USA, 1905 – 10 – 23 – 1983 – 09 – 10 ) Edward M. Purcell ( USA, *1912 – 08 – 30 ) Development of a novel precision method of nuclear magnetism ( NMR ).
1953 : F. Zernike ( Netherlands ).
1954 : Max Born ( United Kingdom, Germany, 1882 – 12 – 11 – 1970 – 01 – 05 ) Walther Bothe ( Germany, 1891 – 01 – 08 – 1957 – 02 – 08 ).
1955 : P. Kusch ( USA ) W. E. Lamb ( USA ).
1956 : John Bardeen ( USA, 1908 – 05 – 23 – 1991 – 01 – 30 ) Walter H. Brattain ( USA, 1902 – 02 – 10 – 1987 – 10 – 14 ) William Shockley ( USA, *1910 – 02 – 13 ) Development of the transistor.
1957 : T. D. Lee ( China ) Ch. N. Yang ( China ).
1958 : I. M. Frank ( Soviet Union ) I. E. Tamm ( Soviet Union ) P. A. Cherenkov ( Soviet Union ).
1959 : O. Chamberlain ( USA ) E. Segre ( USA, Italy ).
1960 : D. A. Glaser ( USA ).
1961 : R. Hofstadter ( USA ) Rudolf Mößbauer ( Germany, *1929 – 01 – 29 ).
1962 : L. D. Landau ( Soviet Union ).
1963 : Maria Goeppert – Mayer ( USA, Germany ) H. D. Jensen ( Germany ) Eugene Paul Wigner ( USA, Hungary, 1902 – 02 – 17 – 1995 – 01 – 03 ).
1964 : N. Basov ( Soviet Union, *1922 – 12 – 14 ) A. Prokhorov ( Soviet Union, *1916 – 07 – 11 ) Charles Townes ( USA, *1915 – 07 – 28 ) Laser, Maser.
1965 : Richard P. Feynman ( USA, 1918 – 05 – 11 – 1988 – 02 – 15 ) J. Schwinger ( USA ) S. Tomonaga ( Japan ).
1966 : A. Kastler ( France ).
1967 : Hans A. Bethe ( USA, Germany, *1906 – 07 – 02 ) Studies on the theory of nuclear reactions.
1968 : L. W. Alvarez ( USA ).
1969 : M. Gell – Mann ( USA ).
1970 : H. Alfvén ( Sweden ) L. Néel ( France ).
1971 : D. Gabor ( United Kingdom ).
1972 : John Bardeen ( USA, 1908 – 05 – 23 – 1991 – 01 – 30 ) L. N. Cooper ( USA ) J. R. Schrieffer ( USA ) Theory of superconductivity.
1973 : L. Esaki ( Japan ) I. Giaever ( USA, Norway ) B. Josephson ( United Kingdom ).
1974 : M. Ryle ( United Kingdom ) A. Hewish ( United Kingdom ).
1975 : A. Bohr ( Denmark ) B. Mottelson ( Denmark ) J. Rainwater ( USA ).
1976 : B. Richter ( USA ) S. Ting ( USA ).
1977 : Ph. W. Anderson ( USA ) J. v. Vleck ( USA ) Neville F. Mott ( United Kingdom, 1905 – 09 – 30 – 1996 – 08 – 08 ).
1978 : P. L. Kapitsa ( Soviet Union, 1894 – 06 – 26 – 1984 – 04 – 08 ) A. Penzias ( USA ) R. Wilson ( USA ).
1979 : Sheldon Lee Glashow ( USA, *1932 – 12 – 05 ) Steven Weinberg ( USA, *1933 – 05 – 03 ) Unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction A. Salam ( Pakistan ).
1980 : J. W. Cronin ( USA ) V. L. Fitch ( USA ).
1981 : N. Bloembergen ( USA ) A. L. Schawlow ( USA ) Kai Manne Siegbahn ( Sweden, *1918 – 04 – 20 ).
1982 : Kenneth G. Wilson ( USA, *1936 – 06 – 08 ) Theory of phase transitions and critical phenomena.
1983 : S. Chandrasekhar ( USA ) William A. Fowler ( USA, *1911 – 08 – 09 ) Importance of nuclear reactions for the formation of chemical elements in the universe.
1984 : Carlo Rubbia ( Italy, *1934 ) Simon van der Meer ( Netherlands, *1925 – 11 – 24 ) Basic studies on particle physics.
1985 : Klaus v. Klitzing ( Germany, *1943 – 06 – 28 ) Discovery of the quantum Hall effect.
1986 : Ernst Ruska ( Germany, 1906 – 12 – 25 – 1988 – 05 – 27 ) Gerd Binnig ( Germany, *1947 – 07 – 20 ) Heinrich Rohrer ( Switzerland, *1933 – 06 – 06 ) Electron microscope and raster tunnel microscope, respectively.
1987 : Johannes Georg Bednorz ( Germany, *1950 – 05 – 16 ) Karl Alex Müller ( Switzerland, *1927 – 04 – 20 ) High temperature superconductors.
1988 : Leon Max Lederman ( USA ) Melvin Schwartz ( USA ) Jack Steinberger ( USA ).
1989 : Wolfgang Paul ( Germany, *1913 – 08 – 10 ) Hans Georg Dehmelt ( USA, Germany ) Norman Foster Ramsey ( USA, *1915 – 08 – 27 ).
1990 : Jerome I. Friedman ( USA, *1930 – 03 – 28 ) Henry W. Kendall ( USA, *1926 – 12 – 09 ) Richard E. Taylor ( Canada, *1929 – 11 – 02 ) Inelastic scattering of electrons by protons and bound neutrons, development of the quark model.
1991 : Pierre – Gilles de Gennes ( France, *1932 ) Theoretical description of ordering phenomena of liquid crystals, polymers, magnets and superconductors.
1992 : Georges Charpak ( France, *1924 ) Invention of detectors for the detection of rare interactions of elementary particles.
1993 : Russell A. Hulse ( USA, *1950 ) Joseph Taylor jr. ( USA, *1941 ).
1994 : Bertram N. Brockhouse ( Canada ) Clifford G. Shull ( USA ) Studies on neutron beams.
1995 : Martin L. Perl ( USA, *1927 ) for the discovery of the tau lepton Frederick Reines ( USA, *1918 ) for the detection of the neutrino.
1996 : David M. Lee ( USA, *1931 ) Douglas D. Osheroff ( USA, *1945 ) Robert C. Richardson ( USA, *1937 ) for their discovery of superfluidity in helium – 3.
1997 : Steven Chu ( USA, *1948 ) Claude Cohen – Tannoudji ( France, *1933 ) William D. Phillips ( USA, *1948 ) for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light.
1998 : Robert B. Laughlin ( USA, *1950 ) Horst L. Störmer ( Germany / USA, *1949 ) Daniel C. Tsui ( USA, *1939 ) for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations ( electrons acting together in strong magnetic fields, fractional quantum Hall effect ).
1999 : Gerardus ‘t Hooft ( Netherlands, *1946 ) Martinus J.G. Veltman ( Netherlands, *1931 ) for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics.
2000 : Zhores I. Alferov ( Russia, *1930 ) Herbert Kroemer ( Germany / USA, *1928 ) for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high – speed – and opto – electronics Jack S. Kilby ( USA, *1923 ) for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit.

Important Wars in 20th Century

20th Century Wars :

Russo – Japanese War Summary (1904 – 05) :

The conflict arising from the rivalry of Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea. Russia was forced to surrender Korea, the Liaotung Peninsula and Sakhalin to Japan.
History of First World War (1914 – 18) :
International conflict began between Austria and Serbia. The chief contestants were the Central Powers (Germany and Austria) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). Many other countries joined as the war began.
The naval blockade of Germany caused severe food shortages and helped to end the war. An armistice was agreed in November 1918 and peace treaties were signed at Versailles (1919).

Sino – Japanese War Summary (1931 – 1933) :
Two wars between China and Japan, marking the beginning and the end of Japanese imperial expansion on the Asian mainland. The first war in 1894-95 arose from rivalry for control of Korea. The second war in 1937-45 developed from Japan’s seizure of Manchuria and the conflict merged into World War II, ending with the final defeat of Japan in 1945.

History of Second World War (1939 – 45) :
War began shortly after the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Iraq wanted control over oil – rich Iranian border territory. Iraq expressed readiness to negotiate peace, after it lost ground. In 1988, Iran agreed to a ceasefire. Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990.
History of Gulf War (16 Jan, 1991 – 28 Feb, 1991) :

Military action by a US led coalition to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Kuwait was liberated (Feb 26, 1991), and a ceasefire was declared on Feb 28.
History of Bosnian War (1992 – 1998) :
Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a multiethnic population – Muslims, Serbs and Croats. The Dayton peace agreement was signed in 1995. Bosnia Herzegovina became a single state.
US – Afghan War (2001) :
Military action by US against the Taliban government of Afghanistan in protest against the Sept 11 attack on WTC Towers. US claimed that Afghanistan was the breeding ground of terrorists and had given refuge to Osama bin Laden.
Gulf War II Timeline (2003) :
Military action by a US led coalition to oust Saddam Hussain from power in Iraq. It was conducted on the pretext of Iraq possessing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).

International conflict arising from disputes provoked by the expansionist policies of Germany in Europe and Japan in the Far East. The axis powers – Germany, Italy and (after September 1940) Japan – controlled most of Europe and much of northern Africa, China and Asia.
The United States stayed out of the war until December 7, 1941, when Japan attached Pearl Harbor, and the United States joined the Allies in fighting not only Japan but the other Axis powers as well. The war ended when the U. S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
Arab – Israeli War Timeline (1948 – 49, 1956, 1967, 1973 – 74) :
Conflict between Israel and the Arab states. After the creation of the state of Israel (May 14, 1948), troops from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Trans Jordan (Modern Jordan) invaded the new nation.
Simmering Arab – Israeli hostilities exploded into war in 1967, when Israel, assailed by Palestinian guerillas, launched a massive primitive strike against Egypt, the Arab world’s leading state. In the six day war, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula, the old city of Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights.
History of Korean War (1950 – 53) :
Conflict between North Korea, supported by China and South Korea supported by UN forces dominated by the USA. Negotiations continued for two years before a truce was agreed in Jul 1953.
History of Vietnam War (1954 – 75) :
Conflict between US backed South Vietnam and the Viet Cong, who had the support of communist North Vietnam. It followed to the partition of Vietnam. In 1975 South Vietnam was overrun by North Vietnamese forces, and the country was united under Communist rule.
Falkland War Timeline (Apr – Jun, 1982) :
Military conflict between Great Britain and Argentina on the question of sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. Britain won the war.
Iran-Iraq War Summary (1980 – 90) :

Indian National Army

Subhash Chandra Bose History :

• The idea of the Indian National Army (INA) to liberate India was originally conceived by Rasbehari Bose, who had fled to Japan in 1915 and had become a Japanese citizen, with the help of Mohan Singh, arrindian officer of the British Indian army in Malaya.
• S.C. Bose secretly escaped from India in Jan 1941, and reached Berlin. In Jul 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia. Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).
• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.

• The INA launched an attack on India and penetrated into the Indian Territory. It annexed Andaman and Nicobar with Japanese help and named them as ‘Shaheed’ and ‘Swaraj’.
• But, it couldn’t face the British army and surrendered.
• In this, S.C.Bose gave the call ‘Dilli Chalo’,
• INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi. RK. Sehgal, Shah Nawaz (commander of the INA battalion that had reached the Indo-Burma front) and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial.
• The Congress took up their defence, with Bhulabhai Desai, TejbahadurSapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, K.N. Katju and Asaf Ali defending them. Muslim League also joined for the countrywide protest.
• Nov 12, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.

Wavell Plan 1945 :

• Given by Lord Wayell.
• The plan was that the Viceroy’s Executive Council should be so reconstituted that its members, except the Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief, were to be Indians (from various parties). Simla conference was convened in this regard, but was rejected by Jinnah.

The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 :

• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on Mar 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India.
• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.

• On May 16, 1946, the mission put forward its proposals:

• Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting Princely States was suggested. The union would deal into the following subjects: Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication and would have the powers to raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would be enjoyed by the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union subjects.
• There were to be three groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay, United Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces (Sind, NWFP, Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general elections, a province could come out of the group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution.
• The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature would not be directly elected by the people but by the provincial legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the Princely States would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.

• Both Congress and Muslim League accepted it.
• The elections of the Constituent Assembly were held in Jul 1946. The Congress got 209 of the total 273 seats.
• Interim Government 1946 : Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sep 2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President. Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the League join the government on Oct 26, 1946.

History of Jinnah Direct Action Resolution :

• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
• Therefore, Muslim League withdraw its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on Jul 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946).
• It resulted in heavy communal riots.
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

Formation of constituent Assembly of India : The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.

Mountbatten Plan of June 1947 :

• On Jun 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:

• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.
• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
• There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
• Aug 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

• The British govt, passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in Jul 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

National Movement Partition and Independence:

• All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.
• Two Commissions were appointed by the British Government with Sir Cyril Redcliffe as chairman of both to see through the partition and fix the international boundaries of the two nations-to-be.
• At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely states in India.
• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By Aug 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

Road Transport in India

India’s road network is one of the largest in the world. The total length of roads is more than 33 lakh km.
For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are classified into National Highways, State Highways, District Highways, Village Roads, Border Roads, etc.
National highways are maintained by the Central Government, State highways by the respective state government while District highways by the respective District Board. Border roads and International highways are also die responsibility of Central Government.
The present length of the National Highways in India is approx. 45,000 km. They constitute only 2% of the total road length and carries nearly 40% of the road traffic.

Some of the Important National Highways are:

• NH 1: New Delhi – Ambala – Jalandhar – Amritsar.
• NH 2: Delhi – Mathura – Agara – Kanpur – Allahabad – Varanasi – Kolkata.
• NH 3: Agra – Gwalior – Nasik – Mumbai
• NH 4: Thane and Chennai via Pune and Belgaun.
• NH 5: Kolkata – Chennai
• NH 6: Kolkata – Dhule
• NH 7: Varanasi – Kanyakumari
• NH 8: Delhi – Mumbai (via Jaipur, Baroda and Ahmedabad)
• NH 9: Mumbai – Vijaywada
• NH 10: Delhi – Fazilka
• NH 11: Agra – Bikaner
• NH 12: Jabalpur – Jaipur
• NH 24: Delhi – Lucknow
• NH 27: Allahabad – Varanasi
• NH 28: Barauni – Lucknow
• NH 29: Gorakhpur – Varanasi
• NH 56: Lucknow – Varanasi
• NH – 7 is the longest highway of India.
Note:




• The Golden Quadrilateral Project connecting the four Metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata covering a total distance of 5846 km is currently being processed. It is the first phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP). Total cost of the project is Rs 300 billion, funded largely by the government’s special petroleum product tax revenues and government borrowing. As of June ’08, 5669 km of the intended road has been 4-laned.

• The North South – East West Corridor (NS-EW) is the largest ongoing expressway project in India. It is the second phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), and consists of building 7300 kilometers of four/six lane expressways connecting Srinagar, Kanyakumari, Porbandar and Silchar. The final completion date of the project has been set as December 2009.

• Maharashtra has the maximum length of surfaced roads in India.

Physiography of India

Physiography of India – Indian States on International Boundaries

Indian Physiography

Physiographically, India can be divided into 3 units:

1. Mountains in the North
2. Plains in the Northern India & the Coast
3. Plateau region of the South

To these can be added the fourth, namely, the coasts and islands
Mountains of India
The Himalayas in India
Means ‘Abode of Snow’. They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly sedimentary rocks.
They stretch from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. Total length is about 5000 km. The width of the Himalayas varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2000m.

The Eastern Himalayas-made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills-are also known as Purvanchal.
The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high ranges of Central Asia.
Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each with separate features.

The Great Himalayas or The Himadri

• Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the world’s highest peaks are here :
  

  Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha or Chomo Langma)	8850 m (in Nepal)
  Mt Kanchenjunqa	8598 m (in India)
  Mt Makalu	8481 m (in Nepal)
  Mt Dhaulaqiri	81 72 m (in Nepal)
  Mt Cho Oyu	8153m (in Nepal)
  Mt Nanga Parbat	8126m (in India)
  Mt Annapurna	8078 m (in Nepal)
  Mt Nando Devi	7817 m (in India)

• There are few passes and almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m. they include Shipki La and Bara Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand, and Jelep La and Nathu La in Sikkim.

Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal

• Average height of mountains is 3700 – 4500 m.

• Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction (mountains rising to 5000 m and the valleys touching 1000 m).

• Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie.

• Important hill resorts are : Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.

Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks

• Lowest range (average elevation is 900-1200 m).

• Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser Himalayas and the plains. It is the newest range.

Trans – Himalayan Zone

• This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has some important ranges like Karakoram, Laddakh, Zanskar, etc. the highest peak in this region is K2 or Godwin Austin (8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir). Other high peaks are Hidden Peak (8068 m), Broad Peak (8047 m) and Gasherbrum II (8035 m).

• The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is more than 72 km long (biggest glacier in the world). Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important glaciers in this region.

• This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar Regions.

Peninsular Mountains

• While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not.

• The Aravalli Mountains (Rajasthan) : World’s oldest. Guru Shikhar is the highest peak on which Mount Abu (1,722 m) is situated.

• The Vindhya Mountains

• The Satpura Mountains (highest point at Dhupgarh [1,350 m] near Pachmarhi)

• The Western Ghats or Sahyadris : Average height 1200mtrs, 1600km long. Its southern part is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap (link between Tamil Nadu & Kerala). Other passes are Thalghat (connects Nasik to Mumbai) and Bhorghat (connects Pune to Mumbai).

• The Eastern Ghats (Highest peak : Mahendra Giri (1501 m)).

• The Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains : Meeting place of the Western and the Eastern Ghats. Two highest peaks are Dodda Betta and Makurti.

• The highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi (2695 m) in Anaimalai Hills.

• Cardamom hills or Ealaimalai is the southernmost mountain range of India.

Facts about position of states

• UP borders the maximum number of States-8 (Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar). After UP is Assam, which touches the border of 7 States.

• Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States : Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripuro, Mizoram.

• Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States : UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.

• 9 States form the coast of India. They are : Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.

• 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.

• The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made up of islands only.

The Plains of India

• To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are formed by the depositional works of three major river systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of north India are alluvial in nature and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.

• The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the Western Plains.

• In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or ‘Kayak’, which are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake.

• The plains consist of four divisions:

• Bhabar : Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous
• Tarai : Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness
• Bhangar : Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called ‘kankar’
• Khadar : New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.

Peninsular Plateau of India

• Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western boundaries, respectively.

• Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north & the Deccan Plateau in the south.

• Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.

• Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.

• Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most typical part of which is the Ranchi plateau.

• The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-Eocene era through the fissure eruptions.

Islands of India

• Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline: Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).

• Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:

The Andaman and Nicobar Group

• Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.

• The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the country.

• Saddle Peak (737 m) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.

• The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature.

• Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.

• Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of eruption these days after lying dormant for 200 years.

The Arabian Sea Group

• All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are coral islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North : Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).

Note :

• Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)

• Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

• Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.

• Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives.

Railways in India

Railways of India

Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental public undertaking in the country.

The first train ran in India between Bombay and Thane, a stretch of 34 km. on April 16 1853.

The Indian Railways celebrated its 150th anniversary on April 16, 2003. To commemorate the occasion, 16 January – Shatabadi inter – city express trains were announced to be inducted.

The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in 1854.

The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi.

The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona.

Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system in the world after Russia.

The fastest train in India is the Shatabadi Express whose maximum speed is 140 km/hr.

The total route covered is approx 63,000 km.

The total number of railway stations in India is 7,100.

The longest railway platform in India is at Kharagpur ( W.B. ).

Mumbai is the destination where maximum number of trains in India head for.

The longest train route is of ‘Himsagar Express’ from Jammu Tavi to Kanyakumari. It covers a distance of 3,726 km and passes through ten states.

The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata ( W.Bengal ) on October 24, 1984. The two stations connected were Dumdum and Belgachhia.

The Indian Railways operate in three different gauges :

1. Broad Gauge Railway ( Distance between rails is 1.67 m ).
2. Metre Gauge Railways ( Distance between rails is 1.00 m ).
3. Narrow Gauge Railways India ( Distance between rails is 0.762 or 0.610 m ).

The broad gauge accounts for nearly 50% route followed by metre gauge ( 43% ) and the remaining by narrow gauge.

Indian railways are divided into 16 zones, headed by a General Manager who is responsible to the Railway Board, for all matters.

     

Railway Zones	Head Quarters
Central	Mumbai VT
Eastern	Kolkata
Northern	New Delhi
North Eastern	Gorakhpur
North-East Frontier	Maligaon-Guwahati
Southern	Chennai
South Central	Secunderabad
South Eastern	Kolkata
Western	Mumbai Churchgate
East Coast	Bhubaneshwar
East Central	Hajipur
North Central	Allahabad
North Western	Jaipur
South Western	Bangalore (Hubli)
West Central	Jabalpur
South-East Central	Bilaspur

• Northern Railway ( NR ) is the largest railway zone having length of 10,995 km.

• North – East Frontier ( NEF ) is the smallest railway zone having just 3,860 km route length.

• Konkan Railways India : It is a project to shorten the distance between Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. The total route length is 786 km between Apta ( Maharashtra ) and Mangalore ( Karnataka ).

Railway Manufacturing Units :

• Chittaranjan Locomotive Works : Located in Chittaranjan ( W.B ) and manufactures electric engines.

• Diesel Locomotive Works : Located in Varanasi (U.P) and manufactures diesel engines.

• Integral Coach Factory in India : Located in Perambur ( TN ) and manufactures rail coaches.

• Wheel and Axle Plant : Locatedat Yalahaka ( Bangalore, Karnataka ) and manufactures wheels and axles.

• Diesel Component Works : Locatedat Patiala (Punjab) and manufactures components of diesel engines.

• Rail Coach Factory in India : Located at Kapurthala ( Punjab ) and manufactures rail coaches.

List of Famous Towns

Famous Towns and Places in India

1. Agra : Situated on the right bank of the Yamuna. Famous for Taj Mahal, and Nenue of Indo – Pak Summit July 16, 2001.

2. Aizawal : Capital of Mizoram.

3. Ajmer : Famous city of Rajasthan, pilgrimage centre for the Muslims, as the tomb of Khawaja Moin – ud – din Chishti is situated.

4. Aligarh : An important town of U.P., major manufacturing centre of locks, knives, etc.

5. Alipur : Suburb of Kolkata famous for Government mint.

6. Allahabad : Also called Prayag is a city in U.P. situated at the confluence of the Ganga and Jamuna.

7. Amarnath : A famous place of Hindu Pilgrimage, situated at a height of about 13,500 ft.in Kashmir.

8. Amritsar : Famous for Golden Temple and a great pilgrimage centre for the Sikhs.

9. Arvi : The tiny village of Arvi near Narayanagaon 80 km. from Pune, figures in the International Commercial Satellite Communication map as India’s First Satellite Station.

10. Aurangabad : Important town of Maharashtra State. Ellora and Ajanta Caves are situated here.

11. Ayodhya : Famous for Ram Janam Bhumi, situated on the river Sarayu.

12. Badrinath : A famous Hindu pilgrimage centre in the Himalayas in Uttranchal near Gangotri Glacier.

13. Banaras ( Varanasi ) : An important pilgrimage centre for the Hindus. Famous for silk brocade, seat of the famous Hindu University.

14. Bangalore : Capital of Karnataka, famous for silk manufactures.

15. Buland Darwaja : A high gate in Fatehpur Sikri near Agra built by Akbar.

16. Chennai : A port and capital of Tamil Nadu. A great manufacturing and commercial centre.

17. Cherrapunji : In Meghalaya; the place of heaviest rainfallnearly; 426″ yearly.”

18. Chhatnb : It is small town in the Indian State of Jammu & Kashmir across the Indo – Pak border. Champ got a lot of attention from Pakistan forces in 1965 and 1971. Both times, it was the scene of some very hard battles.

19. Cyberabad : The city of Hyderabad of Andhra Pradesh acquired the name of Cyberabad with giants like Oracle and Microsoft setting up offices there. A ‘Silicon Valley’ is being developed there.

20. Darjeeling : A world famous tea producing centre of West Bengal.

21. Delhi : Capital of India. A great manufacturing and trading centre. It is famous mostly for the historical buildings.

22. Digboi ( Assam ): Known for rich oil fields.

23. Dum Duin ( W.B. ) : The noted international airport near Kolkata.

24. Eden Garden ( Kolkata ) : Famous stadium for cricket matches.

25. Ellora and Ajanta : Famous for wonderful Buddhist cave temples.

26. Gate way of India : A memorial gate at the Mumbai port, built in 1911.

27. Haridwar ( Uttrakhand ): It is the major centre of pilgrimage for Hindus. It is situated on the banks of Ganges.

28. India Gate : A memorial in Delhi facing the Rashtrapati Bhawan.

29. Jharia : Major Coal mining centre in Bihar.

30. Jalianwala Bagh : A garden in Amritsar, scene of massacre of innocent Indians by the British on April 13, 1919.

31. Khajuraho : Famous for Mahadev temple.

32. Kolkata : Capital of West Bengal, India’s second largest ( population ) city and chief commercial port and also an industrial centre with jute and textile mills. It is also called “the city of palaces.”

33. Qutab Minar : One of the masterpieces of Indian architecture and art in Delhi. It is the biggest minar in the world.

34. Lucknow : Capital of U.P. It is famous for gold and embroidery works.

35. Ludhiana : Located in the Punjab. A major industrial and manufacturing town of India. Known for hosiery, cycle and sewing machine part industries.

36. Lumbini : In Nepal Terai, birth place of Lord Budda.

37. Mathura : A holy city in U.P., birth place of Lord Krishna.

38. Mirzapur : In U P. on the Ganges, famous for carpets, brass works and lac.

39. Mount Abu : Hill station in Rajasthan. Famous for Dilwara Jain Temple and Police Training School.

40. Mumbai : Capital of Maharashtra, first big city ( population ) of India and a leading commercial and industrial area. Popularly known as Paris of India.

41. Nagpur : In Maharashtra famous for oranges.

42. Nazi : Situated on river Godavari, pilgrimage centre for Hindus, known for the location of security currency printing press here.

43. Panipat : Famous for 3 battles fought in 1526, 1556 and 1761.

44. Patna : Capital of Bihar. It is the birth place of Guru Gobind Singh.

45. Pimpri : Near Pune, known for Penicillin factory.

46. Pune : It a commercial centre and a military station. A popular health resort in Maharashtra.

47. Port Blair : Capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

48. Pokhran : A place in Rajasthan desert where the first underground nuclear experiment was made by India on May 18, 1974. It also witnessed five more nuclear explosions in May, 1999.

49. Puri : Famous for Jagannath temple which is an important centre of Hindus pilgrimage.

50. Pushkar : Near Ajmer is famous for ancient temple of Brahma.

51. Raipur : Capital of newly formed Chhatisgarh state.

52. Rajghat : Situated on the bank of the Yamuna in Delhi. Samadhi of Mahatma Gandhi.

53. Ranchi : Capital of newly formed Jharkhand state.

54. Raniganj : Famous coal mining centre of India, located in West Bengal.

55. Red Fort : Redstone fort built by Shah Jahan in Delhi.

56. Rourkela ( Orissa ): Steel Plant and Fertilizer factory.

57. Sarnath ( near Varanasi ) : Buddha preached first sermon here.

58. Sanchi : Near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. It is noted for the Buddhist stupas of Ashoka.

59. Shakti Sthal : Samadhi of Smt. Indira Gandhi.

60. Shimla : A beautiful hill station and capital of Himachal Pradesh. Venue of Indo – Pak Summit, July 28, 1972.

61. Sikkim : It became the 22nd State in the Indian Union by the Constitution ( 36th Amendment ) Act, 1972.

62.Srinagar : Capital of Jammu & Kashmir and a beautiful city of lakes.

63. Udaipur ( Rajasthan ) : Called the city of lakes.

64. Ujjain : In Madhya Pradesh is one of the seven cities sacred to the Hindus. Known for Mahakaleshwar temple.

65. Uri : Village in Kashmir on cease – fire line between India and Pakistan.

66. Vaishali : Modern Besarch in the district of Muzaffarpur in Bihar. It was the capital of the famous Vaishali clan in ancient limes.

67. Varanasi : or Banaras is a town in U P. very sacred to the Hindus. 1S known as the religious capital of Hindu India. Famous for Banaras mdu University, Vishwanath Temple. Manmandir with Jai Singh’s Observatory, Ramnagar Fort etc.

68. Victoria Memorial : A magnificent building in Kolkata having an art gallery and a well – laid out garden attached to it.

69. Vijay Ghat : On the banks of Yamuna in Delhi is the Smadhi of Shri Lai Bahadur Shastri, former Prime Minister of India.

70. Vishakhapatnam : Big harbour on the southern coast of India; ship­building yard.

71. Viswa Shanti Stupa : ( World Peace Pagoda ) 45 metres high stupa raised atop the picturesque Ratnagiri Hill. It is the first stupa of its kind in India. It was inaugurated on October 25, 1969.

72. Vivekananda Rock : Is situated near Kanyakumari at the southern tip of India’s coastline. It has been so named in memory of Swami Vivekananda.

73. Wardha : in ( Maharashtra State ); Mahatma Gandhi lived there for several years; centre of cotton trade.

74. Wellington : In the Nilgiri Hills ( Tamil Nadu ) is known for Defence Services Staff College.

75. Zojila : A pass on the road from Srinagar ( Kashmir ) to Leh and then to Yarkand in Tibet.